The Moche culture flourished from approximately 100 B.C. to 750 A.D. Its territory extended for about 700 kilometers, from Piura in the north to Huarmey in the south.
The Moche Valley is generally considered one of the main centers of this culture. However, according to several archaeologists, including Luis Jaime Castillo, the Moche civilization did not have a single capital city. Instead, it had regional centers in several major valleys: Loma Negra in Piura; Sipán and Pampa Grande in Lambayeque; Dos Cabezas and San José de Moro in the Jequetepeque Valley; El Brujo in the Chicama Valley; and the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna in the Moche Valley.
At the end of the 6th century, following a major El Niño phenomenon, Moche society began to decline. In the Moche Valley, the political center shifted to Galindo, while in Lambayeque, population became concentrated in Pampa Grande.
Agriculture was the foundation of the Moche economy. To support agricultural production, the Moche built an extensive network of irrigation canals. Other important activities are depicted in their pottery, including deer hunting and fishing from traditional reed boats known as caballitos de totora.
Moche Religion and Deities
The principal Moche deity is represented in their temples and is known as Ai Apaec. This god is commonly depicted with feline features. In Moche pottery, Ai Apaec also appears with the bodies or attributes of animals such as crabs, spiders and eagles. Other representations show the deity above an ear of corn or standing on a hill.
Ai Apaec is also known as the “Decapitator,” a name associated with images in which the deity holds a ceremonial knife, known as a tumi in Quechua, and the head of a prisoner.
The sea, the moon and the rainbow were also important elements of Moche religious beliefs and were represented as significant supernatural forces.
Moche Metalwork and Ceramics
Moche metalworking techniques were highly sophisticated. Gold, silver and copper were skillfully worked to create magnificent objects. The Moche also mastered a technique known as tumbaga, an alloy of copper and gold. One of the finest examples of Moche goldwork can be seen in the objects discovered in the royal tomb of the Lord of Sipán.
Moche pottery is considered among the most realistic in ancient Peru. Its characteristic colors were red and cream. The scenes depicted on the ceramics often had a ceremonial or religious significance, and pottery was used as offerings in temples and funerary platforms. In 1948, archaeologist Rafael Larco Hoyle proposed a classification of Moche pottery into five stylistic phases.
The Chimú Kingdom (850 A.D. – 1470 A.D.)
As with the Incas, the origins of the Chimú people are explained through a legend recorded in an anonymous chronicle written between 1604 and 1610. According to this account, a mythical figure named Taycanamo arrived from the sea at the head of a fleet of rafts and became the founder of the Chimú dynasty.
The Chimú culture developed into a powerful state around 850 A.D. and lasted until approximately 1470, when the Incas conquered its territory and incorporated it into the Tahuantinsuyo Empire.
For nearly six centuries, the Chimú expanded their territory with the support of an organized army. Around 1370, they conquered the Lambayeque, or Sicán, culture, whose metalworking traditions made a significant contribution to the development of metallurgy in Chan Chan.
During the reign of Minchancaman, the Chimú Kingdom controlled much of Peru’s northern coast, extending from Tumbes to the Chillón Valley, near Lima, over a distance of more than 1,000 kilometers.
However, Minchancaman eventually faced the fall of his extensive kingdom. An Inca army of more than 30,000 soldiers, commanded by Túpac Inca Yupanqui, the son of Pachacutec, defeated the Chimú forces.
According to some historical accounts, the conquest was relatively peaceful, which may explain why Chan Chan was not completely plundered or destroyed. The Chimú ruler was taken to Cusco, along with hundreds of skilled artisans, including ceramicists, goldsmiths and weavers.
The Chimú Kingdom and the Decline of Chan Chan
In Chan Chan, Minchancaman’s son, Chumuncaur, succeeded his father to the throne, but the Chimú Kingdom was now under the rule of the Inca Empire.
The Inca representatives established their administrative center in Chiquitoy Viejo, in the Chicama Valley. This contributed to the decline and eventual abandonment of Chan Chan.
Finally, during the reign of Caja Cim Cim, the Spanish conquerors arrived in the Moche Valley, beginning the looting and destruction of temples and citadels.
Economy
Agriculture was the foundation of the Chimú economy. To support it, the Chimú built irrigation canals and made use of underground water resources. They also used guano from the islands as fertilizer.
Their crops included lima beans, corn, common beans, squash, sweet potatoes, cassava, chili peppers, caigua and peanuts.
They also cultivated various fruits, such as plums, lúcuma, soursop, pacae, avocado and cherimoya. In addition, they used plants and trees for construction, including algarrobo wood, reeds and totora. Cotton was their most important non-food crop.
Fishing, hunting and livestock raising were other important economic activities. The Chimú did not use currency. Instead, trade and barter were the main ways of obtaining products and goods that they did not produce themselves.
Handicrafts also played a very important role. Chan Chan had specialized workshops where textiles were produced for local use and exchange. The Chimú achieved remarkable advances in metalworking, skillfully working gold, silver, copper and bronze.
Language
According to accounts by Spanish chroniclers, the Chimú Kingdom did not have a single language. Instead, several regional languages were spoken throughout its territory:
- Sec Language: Also known as Tallán, it was spoken in the regions of Tumbes and Piura.
- Muchic or Yunga Language: It was spoken from the Motupe Valley to the Chicama Valley. In the 17th century, the priest Fernando de la Carrera reported that the language was spoken in 26 coastal and highland towns, estimating its speakers at approximately 40,000.
- Olmos Language: Associated with the area around Olmos.
- Quingnam Language: Spoken in the Moche, Virú and Chao valleys.
- Pescadora Language: Spoken in the areas of Pacasmayo and Guadalupe.
Religion
In Chan Chan, religion was the foundation of political power. The monumental constructions generally had ceremonial and religious functions.
The principal deity was the Moon, known as Si. The Chimú considered the Moon more powerful than the Sun because it could be seen both during the day and at night. According to their beliefs, when the Moon disappeared, it had gone to the other world to punish thieves.
Solar eclipses were celebrated as victories of the Moon over the Sun. Lunar eclipses, on the other hand, were sometimes associated with sad or ominous events.
The Moon was also believed to protect fishing activities.
Sian, meaning “House of the Moon” in the Muchic language, was the temple where the main religious ceremonies were held.
Stars and Other Chimú Deities
The stars were also objects of worship. According to the Spanish chroniclers, particularly Calancha (1638), the ancient inhabitants believed that their ancestors were represented by four stars. These were supposedly associated with stars belonging to the constellations of Canis Major and Piscis Austrinus (the Southern Fish).
According to this belief, the larger and brighter stars represented noblemen and important people, while the smaller and fainter stars represented humble people and commoners.
Other stars, known as Pata (associated with the constellation of Orion), symbolized three figures: a thief represented by the central star and two captors represented by the stars on either side. According to the legend, the Moon had sent these two figures to capture the thief and hand him over to a vulture.
Other deities included Ni, the god of the sea, and the stone deities known as Alaecpong. The Chimú also maintained a special cult dedicated to the mummies of their principal ancestors.